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Cold War Science; Anon. Lawrence in the cold war. Since the above paragraphs emphasize how the course of human endeavor including science is shaped by the talents and personalities of individuals, short biographical notes are included. Gustavus was also an inspector of schools. Forty-eight percent of all mountains in Norway more than m high are in Lom commune. Thus, the Scandinavian connection was still very close.
Lawrence underwent a conventional education locally. The two boys constructed a very early short-wave radio transmitting station. Lawrence would later apply his short-wave radio experiences to the acceleration of protons Amaldi, There, he acquired a PhD on the photoelectric effect in He stayed there with wartime intermissions for the rest of his life. He married once in his wife Molly and he had 6 children. He was unusually well respected by his team of associates.
He sacked twice one of his associates for less than optimal routines but then allowed him back into the fold. This was Robert R. Wilson of whom more later. He was also rigidly correct with regard to financial rewards arising out of his inventions. He patented the cyclotron but never asked for royalties Hinokawa. He invented the calutron isotope separator for separating uranium from uranium for the manufacture of atom bombs. He assigned the patent rights to the US government for one dollar Kovarick and Neuzil.
Thus, while he would seem to have been something of a martinet, he generated much respect and affection. Part of this paradox may be the result of his being intellectually generous and always willing to argue and accept that he might be in error. He was an unusual, complex, but exceedingly talented person. He recounts how he lived in a secure home where discipline was by example.
His father Gustavus was a gifted classicist and, while religious, was not fanatical. A drink was permitted on occasion. His father was also mindful of the politics of the day. However, neither parent helped with homework. Another influence in his young life was the family doctor who was instrumental in getting him interested in medicine, and he maintained that his interest in a career in medicine arose during childhood and never left him.
He tells that his first 2 years at the university was not successful, involving basketball and a girlfriend. Thereafter, he buckled down and set his sights on Harvard Medical School, which was considered the best. This was a fateful decision because there he met of all people Harvey Cushing. His prestige was based on drive, intellect, and a formidable surgical technique. In any medical activity during his lifetime, his support would have been of considerable value. Cushing showed a personal interest in John Lawrence.
In his fourth year as a student, Cushing persuaded him to do an internship in his laboratory. He wrote a couple of papers with Cushing, and when the internship was over, he told Cushing he was quite sure he did not want to do surgery.
Cushing arranged a medical residency at the University of Rochester without Lawrence having to endure a medical internship. Lawrence became deeply involved in their management, thus stimulating an interest in endocrinology. Later, when John Lawrence was a senior medical resident, the closeness of his personal relationship with Cushing was shown by his being allocated to care for the old man when he was a patient in the hospital, a most unusual arrangement.
Cushing advised John Lawrence to become involved with radiation in Berkeley and was instrumental in persuading him to move to California. This was the case that ended with considerable compensation to women who had painted radium onto the dials of watches and suffered various forms of radiotoxicity as a result. The right of individual employees to sue an employer for labor abuse was established by this case. John Lawrence started using the cyclotron to make radioactive isotopes by firing a particles at substances.
This was a continuation of the methodology in use prior to the invention of accelerators, when a particles produced by spontaneous radioactive breakdown were the only heavy particles available.
With the isotopes, he was using artificial radiation. He was insistent that while a particles were used to produce the isotopes, these were not themselves a emitters.
Since there was no substance involved that could be permanently deposited in bone or other tissues, there was no risk.
He also mentioned later that over 20 years, he saw no such delayed complications. The first patient treated with a radioisotope had chronic lymphatic leukemia and on Christmas Eve received phosphorus The patient was still alive in at the age of 74 and Lawrence was immensely proud of this success Ouellette. The use of the cyclotron in nuclear medicine in the first few years 31 32 CHAPTER 3 Medical physics - particle accelerators - the beginning was limited to the production of isotopes.
These were used in physiological studies, diagnostic studies, and, as indicated above, medical therapy. Lawrence published a monograph on this topic in having delivered the material in as a lecture to the New York Academy of Medicine Lawrence, Nonetheless, it took a while for these beams to be used in therapy.
At the time, radiotherapy was fairly primitive. Cushing did not operate upon these patients Hughes, — It should be remembered that there were no clinical X-ray LINACs in the mid- to late s, but there were X-ray generators with a low beam energy by modern standards, being somewhere between and keV up to 2 MeV, compared with the 10 MeV used today.
Neutrons are transiently important in this account as they were the first particles to be used for therapy. This followed some experiments on mice with tumors in the s. Using whole-body neutron radiation, it was shown that cancer cells were killed at a lower dose than that that killed the mice.
This is the reverse of what would be expected, since the tumor cells are hypoxic and would be expected to be radioresistant. However, nobody was aware at that time that for densely ionizing radiations like neutrons, oxygenation has either no or a much reduced effect on radiosensitivity.
Indeed, there was not yet general awareness of the oxygen effect. While it had been recorded in the German literature from the early s, it did not permeate to the English language literature until a decade or so later Hall and Giaccia, The neutron therapy was managed by a colleague of John Lawrence, a distinguished radiotherapist called Robert Stone.
The therapy was carried out for a while but it had a high complication rate. Then, the war came and the treatments were stopped. In retrospect, it was considered that the dose had been far too high, based on ignorance of the associated phenomena at the time Asimov, ; Hughes, — The relative biological effect of neutrons was notably higher than that of photons, which was positive. However, there were many problems with neutron therapy since the particles cannot be directed and collimated like charged particles and spread in every direction.
Thus, a differential dose between tumor and tissue based on selective geometry would be nigh on impossible to achieve, and therapeutic success would be based on differential radiosensitivity between the tissues and the tumor. After the war in , in a Janeway lecture, Dr. Stone recommended that neutron therapy should be discontinued and not restarted Hughes, — In , he published a paper on the advantages of using high-energy fast protons as a radiation therapy tool Wilson, He used the phrase narrow beams in his paper, maybe for the first time.
He also described the very important way in which a proton beam continued without spreading until it reached the end of its path Ouellette. Robert Wilson was a high profile figure who had a difficult time at the Berkeley Laboratory. He was twice sacked by Ernest Lawrence for errors arising from a cavalier attitude Weart.
He twice returned. He was a genuine horse riding cowboy. It is reasonable to assume his very American rather physical attitude to life was at odds with the introspective, obsessional martinet that Lawrence was. However, he also wrote that Lawrence had a big heart. After working in Berkeley, he was chosen to head up the new Fermilab to which he contributed sculptures. He replied no. It has to do with: Are we good painters, good sculptors, great poets?
I mean all the things we really venerate in our country and are patriotic about. A talented, articulate but opinionated man! Wilson was interested in a special property of particle beams, which differs from photon beams. Photon beams have no actual mass and move at the speed of light never slowing down, though they can disappear on absorption. Particle radiation consists of particles with mass.
Thus, they can and do slow down. With charged particles, the beam traverses the tissue with relatively little transmission of energy to the tissues a low linear energy transfer , but at a given distance depending on the speed and nature of the particle, they decelerate over a limited very clearly defined region, depositing most of their contained energy.
How the beams were used is considered in the next chapter. The only father and son to win the same Nobel Prize. Suggested the Bragg Peak could be used for therapy. History of hadrontherapy in the world and Italian developments. Cold War Science.
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